Instrument Rating

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INSTRUMENT FLIGHT RULES

1.     WHAT IS THE TAKE-OFF MINIMA WITHOUT A TAKE-OFF ALTERNATE?         

o   The requirement regarding take-off minima primarily consider visibility or RVR limits unless there is a specific need to see and avoid obstacles on departure, in which case a cloud ceiling limit may also be imposed. The basic rule is that an aircraft can take-off provided that, in the event of an emergency, it can land again, during the course of which it may be necessary for the aircraft to carry out an instrument approach procedure. Therefore, the take-off minima in this case may be governed by the landing minima requirement.

Table 1 – take-off minima Multi engine aircraft that can comply

FACILITIES	RVR/VIS
NIL (Basic by day Only)	500m
Runway edge lights & or CL markings(night requires lights)	250m(300m)
Runway edge and centre line lighting	200m (250m)
Runway edge centre line lighting TDZ, MID and roll out RVR	150m (200m)

·         Aircraft whose performance is such that with a critical power unit failure cannot climb to 1500 feet above the aerodrome whilst clearing obstacles may not take-off with a visibility less that 1500m…this basically applies to Single engine aircraft and Twin engine aircraft whose single engine performance is less than required.

·         If you fly a multiengine aircraft that can comply with the 1500ft rule, then you may work on a visibility as per the table. This means that the lowest possible visibility for take-off is 150m – If LVP’s are in force and the crew are certified to operate in LVP conditions.

·         LVP’s come into force when the lowest RVR at an aerodrome falls below 600m and the cloud ceiling is 200 ft or less.

·         Therefore, if we fly an aircraft that cannot comply – legally you cannot take-off if the visibility is less than 1500m.

Table 2 – multi-engine aircraft that cannot comply with the 1500 ft rule, but can clear obstacle along the take-off path from an assumed engine failure height.

ASSUMED ENGINE FAILURE HEIGHT	RVR/VIS
Less than 50ft	200m
51 to 100ft	300m
101 to 150ft	400m
151 to 200ft	500m
201 to 300ft	1000m
More than 300ft	1500m

·         In order to calculate the assumed engine failure height, the operator must establish the aerodrome specifics i.e. obstacles affecting take-off path (usually outsourced experts), then the single-engine/critical engine performance is calculated and is plotted against the all engine performance.

·         If aircraft’s assumed engine failure height is greater than 300ft agl then the minimum visibility remains 1500m

Take-off minima multi engine aircraft that cannot comply

Minimum Required RVR/Visibility for Take-off

1500m

Ref: South African CATS (91.07.5)

2.     WHAT IS THE TAKE-OFF MINIMA WITH A TAKE-OFF ALTERNATE?

o   The owner or operator shall select and specify in the air traffic service flight plan referred to in Civil Aviation Regulation 91.03.4, a take-off alternate aerodrome, if it would not be possible for the aircraft to return to the aerodrome of departure due to meteorological or performance reasons.

o    The take-off alternate aerodrome referred to, shall be located within –

§   (a) twenty (20) minutes flying time from the departure aerodrome in the case of single-engine aeroplane; or

§  (b) one hour flight time at one-engine cruising speed according to the aircraft flight manual referred to in Civil Aviation Regulation 91.03.2, in still air standard conditions based on the actual take-off mass for a twin-engine aircraft; or

§  (c) two hours flight time at one-engine inoperative cruising speed according to the aircraft flight manual referred to in Civil Aviation Regulation 91.03.2, in still air standard conditions based on the actual take-off mass for three engine and four-engine aircraft:

Provided that if the aircraft flight manual referred to in Civil Aviation Regulation 91.03.2, does not contain a one-engine inoperative cruising speed as referred to in paragraphs (b) and (c), the speed to be used for calculation, shall be the speed which is achieved with the remaining engine  set at maximum continuous power.

GENERAL

When the reported meteorological visibility is below that required for take-off and RVR is not reported, a take-off may only be commenced if the pilot-in-command can determine that the RVR/visibility along the take-off runway is equal to or better than the required minimum.

 When no reported meteorological visibility or RVR is available, a takeoff may only be commenced if the pilot-in-command can determine that the RVR/visibility along the take-off runway is equal to or better than the required minimum.

VISUAL REFERENCE

The take-off minima must be selected to ensure sufficient guidance to control the aeroplane in the event of both a discontinued take-off in adverse circumstances and a continued take-off after failure of the critical power unit.

REQUIRED RVR/VISIBILITY

(a) For multi-engine aeroplanes, whose performance is such that, in the event of a critical power unit failure at any point during take-off, the aeroplane can either stop or continue the take-off to a height of 1 500 feet above the aerodrome while clearing obstacles by the required margins, the take-off minima established by an operator must be expressed as RVR/Visibility values not lower than those given in Table 1 below except as provided in paragraph below:

TAKE- OFF RVR/ VISIBILITY
FACILITIES	RVR/ VISIBILITY (NOTE 3)
NIL (DAY ONLY)	500M
RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTING AND/ OR CENTRELINE MARKINGS	250/300M (NOTES 1 AND 2)
RUNWAY EDGE AND CENTRELINE LIGHTING	200/250 M (NOTE 1)
RWY EDGE AND CENTRELINE LIGHTING MULTIPLE RVR INFORMATION	150/200 M (NOTES 1 AND 4)

NOTES

1.      The higher values apply to Category D aeroplanes

2.      For night operations at least runway edge and runway end lights are required.

3.      The reported RVR/Visibility value representative of the initial part of the take-off run can be replaced by pilot assessment.

The required RVR value must be achieved for all of the relevant RVR reporting points with the exception given in Note 3 above.

Ref: Civil Aviation Regulation 91.07.7

3.      GIVE THE WEATHER MINIMA’S REQUIRED FOR A TAKE-OFF ALTERNATE.

(1) On a flight to be conducted in accordance with IFR, the pilot-in command of an aircraft shall not –

(a) Commence take-off; or

(b) Continue beyond the in-flight decision point,

unless information is available indicating that conditions will, at the estimated

time of arrival of such aircraft, be at, or above, the applicable aerodrome operating minima-

(1) At the destination aerodrome; or

(2) Where a destination alternate aerodrome is required, at the destination aerodrome and one destination alternate aerodrome or at two destination alternate aerodromes.

             (2) On a flight conducted in accordance with VFR, the pilot-in-command of an                 aircraft shall not commence take-off unless current meteorological reports, or a combination of current reports and forecasts, indicate that the meteorological conditions along the route, or part of the route to be flown under VFR, shall, at the appropriate time, be such as to render compliance with the provisions prescribed in this part possible.

Ref: Civil Aviation Regulation 91.07.9

4.     GIVE THE WEATHER MINIMA’S REQUIRED FOR THE DESTINATION ALTERNATE

An owner or operator may only select the destination aerodrome or alternate destination aerodrome when the appropriate weather reports or forecasts, or any combination thereof, indicate that, during a period commencing 1 hour before and ending 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival at the aerodrome, the weather conditions will be at or above the applicable planning minima as follows:

(a) Planning minima for the destination aerodrome

(i) RVR/visibility must be in accordance with that specified in Civil Aviation Regulation 91.07.5; and

(ii) for a non-precision approach or a circling approach, the ceiling at or

above MDH.

              (b) Planning minima for destination alternate aerodrome must be in accordance     with the table below.

                           Table 1: Planning minima- En route and destination alternates

                    

Type of approach	Planning minima
Cat II and III	Cat I minima with RVR in accordance with CATS 91.07.5
Cat I	Non-precision minima and ceiling must be above the MDH
Non-Precision	Non-precision minima plus 200 ft added to MDH and 1000m added to RVR/Visibility. Ceiling must be above the MDH +200 ft
Circling	Circling

    Note: Only operators approved for Cat II and III operations may use planning minima based on a Cat II and III in table 1

         Ref: South African CATS (91.07.8)

5.     HOW MANY DESTINATION ALTERNATES MUST BE PLANNED?

·         The owner or operator of an aeroplane shall select at least one destination alternate aerodrome for each IFR flight unless-

a)     Two suitable non-intersecting runways are available at the destination aerodrome, and

b)     The meteorological conditions prevailing are such that, for the period from 1 hour before until 1 hour after the expected time of arrival at the destination aerodrome, the approach from the minimum sector safe altitude and landing can be made in VMC, or

c)      The destination aerodrome is isolated and no adequate destination alternate aerodrome exists.

·         The owner or operator shall select two destination alternate aerodromes when –

1)     The appropriate weather reports or forecasts for the destination aerodrome, or any combination thereof, indicate that during a period commencing one hour before and ending one hour after the estimated time of arrival, the weather conditions will be below the applicable planning minima, or

2)     No meteorological information can be obtained.

           Ref: South African CAR (91.07.7)

6.     WHAT ARE THE PLANNING CRITERIA FOR ‘NON-PRECISION’ AND ‘PRECISION’ APPROACHES.

Precision Approach (ILS)

            The precision approach, as the name suggests is very accurate. It comprises a localizer for directional guidance and an electronic glide path for descent guidance. It may be declared as a category I, II or III ILS, depending on the accuracy and application of the particular procedure. A category I ILS is capable of guiding an aircraft down to 200 ft agl with an associated RVR of 550 meters. Marker beacons, often co-located with NDB’s are used with the procedure to provide heights during the approach.

           

            General

            A category I operation is a precision instrument approach procedure which provides for an approach to a

            decision height not lower than 200ft and a visibility not less than 800 m or RVR not less than 550m.

            Decision Height

            An operator must ensure that the decision height to be used for a category I precision approach is not lower

            Than

(a)  The minimum decision height specified in the aeroplane flight manual (AFM) if stated

(b)  The minimum height to which the precision approach aid can be used without the required visual reference

(c)   The OCH/OCA for the category of aeroplane or

(d)  200ft

Visual Reference

A pilot may not continue an approach below the category I decision height, determined in accordance with paragraph (2) above, unless at least one of the following references for the intended runway is distinctly visible to the pilot

(a)  Elements of the approach light systems

(b)  The threshold

(c)   The threshold markings

(d)  The threshold lights

(e)  The threshold identification lights

(f)    The visual glide slope indicator

(g)  The touchdown zone or touch zone markings

(h)  The touchdown zone lights or

(i)    Runway edge lights.

Required RVR

 The lowest minima to be used by an operator for category I operations are:

           

CATEGORY 1 MINIMA
DECISION HEIGHT	FACILITIES/RVR (NOTE 5)
	Full (NOTE 1 and 6)	Interm. (NOTE 2 and 6)	Basic (NOTES 3 and 6)	Nil (NOTES 4 and 6)
200 ft	550m	700m	800m	1000m
201ft – 250 ft	600m	700m	800m	1000m
251ft – 300ft	650m	800m	900m	1200m
301 ft and above	800m	900m	1000m	1200m

            NOTES

1)    Full facilities comprise of runway markings, 720 m or more of HI/MI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.

2)    Intermediate facilities comprise runway markings, 420 – 719 m of HI/MI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.

3)    Basic facilities comprise runway markings < 420 m of HI/MI approach lights, any length of LI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.

4)    Nil approach light facilities comprise runway markings, runway edge lights, threshold lights, runway end lights or no lights at all.

5)    The above figures are either the reported RVR or meteorological visibility converted to RVR as in accordance with CATS 131.6.

6)    The table is applicable to convectional approaches with the glide slope angle up to and including 4 degrees.

7)    The DH mentioned in table 5 refers to the initial calculation of DH. When selecting the associated RVR, there is no need to take account of a rounding up to the nearest ten feet, which may be done for operational purposes, e.g. conversion to DA.

SINGLE PILOT OPERATIONS

For single operations, an operator must calculate the minimum RVR for all approaches n accordance with CAR 121.07.7 and associated CATS. An RVR of less than 800 m is not permitted except when using a suitable autopilot coupled to an ILS or MLS, in which case normal minima apply. The decision height may not be less than 1.25 X the minimum disengagement height for the autopilot.       

NON- PRECISION APPROACH

This is usually an NDB or VOR procedure or a combination of both, possibly even using DME for range guidance. It can also include a “localizer only” approach when, during the course of an ILS approach, the glide slope becomes inoperative.

System Minima

Am operator must ensure that system minima for non-precision approach procedures, which are based upon the use of ILS without glide path (LLZ only), VOR, NDB, SRA and VDF are not lower than the MDH values given in the table below.

System Minima
Facility	Lowest MDH
ILS (no glide path – LLZ)	250 ft
SRA (terminating at ½ NM)	250 ft
SRA (terminating at 1 NM)	300 ft
SRA (terminating at 2NM)	350 ft
VOR	300 ft
VOR/DME	250 ft
NDB	300 ft
VDF (QDM AND QGH)	300 ft

Minimum descent height

An operator must ensure that the minimum descent height for a non-precision approach is not lower than either-

A)    The OCH/OCA for the category of aeroplane; or

B)    The system minimum.

Visual Reference

A pilot may not continue an approach below MDA/MDH unless at least one of the following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and indentified to the pilot

      

a)     Elements of the approach light systems

b)     The threshold

c)      The threshold markings

d)     The threshold lights

e)     The threshold identification lights

f)       The visual glide slope indicator

g)     The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings

h)     The touchdown zone lights

i)       Runway edge lights or

j)       Other visual references accepted by the commissioner

Required RVR

The lowest minima to be used by an operator for non-precision approaches are:

                           Table 6(a): RVR for non-precision approach- FULL facilities

Non- Precision Approach Minima Full Facilities (Notes 1,5,6 AND 7)
MDH	RVR/Aeroplane Category
	A	B	C	D
250 ft-299 ft	800 m	800 m	800 m	1200 m
300 ft-449 ft	900 m	1000 m	1000 m	1400 m
450 ft-649 ft	1000 m	1200 m	1200 m	1600 m
650 ft  and above	1200 m	1400 m	1400 m	1800 m

              Table 6(b): RVR for non-precision approach- INTERMEDIATE facilities

Non-precision approach minima Full Facilities (Notes 2,5, 6 and 7)
MDH	RVR/Aeroplane Category
	A	B	C	D
250 ft- 299FT	1000 m	1100 m	1200 m	1400 m
300 ft- 449FT	1200 m	1300 m	1400 m	1600 m
450 ft – 649 ft	1400 m	1500 m	1600 m	1800 m
650 ft and above	1500 m	1500 m	1800 m	2000 m

                     Table 6(c): RVR for non-precision approach- BASIC facilities

Non-Precision Approach Minima Full Facilities (Notes 3, 5, 6, and 7)
MDH	RVR/Aeroplane Category
	A	B	C	D
250 ft – 299 ft	1200 m	1300 m	1400 m	1600 m
300 ft – 449 ft	1300 m	1400 m	1600 m	1800 m
450 ft – 649 ft	1500 m	1500 m	1800 m	2000 m
650 ft and above	1500 m	1500 m	2000 m	2000 m

                  Table 4(d): RVR for non-precision approach- NIL approach light facilities

Non-Precision Approach Minima Full Facilities (Notes 4, 5, 6 and 7)
MDH	RVR/Aeroplane Category
	A	B	C	D
250 ft – 299 ft	1500 m	1500 m	1600 m	1800 m
300 ft – 449 ft	1500 m	1500 m	1800 m	2000 m
450 ft – 649 ft	1500 m	1500 m	2000 m	2000 m
650 ft and above	1500 m	1500 m	2000 m	2000 m

NOTES

1)    Full facilities comprise runway markings, 720m or more of HI/MI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.

2)    Intermediate facilities comprise runway markings, 420- 719m of HI/MI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.

3)    Basic facilities comprise of runway markings < 420m of HI/MI approach, any length of LI approach light lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.

4)    Nil approach light facilities comprise runway light markings, runway edge lights, threshold lights, runway end lights or no lights at all.

5)    The tables are only applicable to convectional approaches with a normal descent slope of not greater than 4 degrees. Greater descent slopes will usually require that visual glide slope guidance (e.g. PAPI) is also visible at the minimum descent height.

6)    The above figures are either reported RVR or metrological visibility converted to RVR as in CATS 121.07.7.8 below.

7)    The MDH mentioned in Table 4 (a), 4(b),4(c), and 4(d) refers to the initial calculation of MDH. When selecting the associated RVR, there is no need to take account or rounding up to the nearest ten ft, which may be done for operational purposes, e.g. conversion to MDA.

  Ref: South African CATS (91.07.5)

7.     EXPLAIN THE ICAO RADIO FAILURE PROCEDURE.

     

                 6.1 General Rules

 

6.1.1 An aircraft operated as a controlled flight shall maintain continuous listening and watch on the appropriate radio frequency of, and establish two way communication as necessary with, the appropriate air traffic control unit, except as may be prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority in respect of aircraft forming part of aerodrome traffic at a controlled aerodrome.

     Note: SELCAL or similar automatic signaling devices satisfy the requirement to maintain a listening watch.

6.1.2 If communication failure procedure compliance with 6.1.1 , the aircraft shall comply with the communication failure procedure in 6.2 below, and with such of the following procedures as are appropriate. In addition, the aircraft, when forming part of the aerodrome traffic at a controlled aerodrome, shall keep a watch for such instructions as may be issued by visual signals.

6.1.2.1 If in visual meteorological conditions, the aircraft shall:

·         Continue to fly in visual meteorological conditions

·         Land at the nearest suitable aerodrome, and

·         Report its arrival by the most expeditious means to the appropriate air traffic unit.

6.1.2.2 if in Instrument meteorological conditions or when conditions are such that it does not appear feasible to complete the flight in accordance with 6.1.2.1, the aircraft shall:

·         Unless otherwise prescribed on the basis of regional air navigation agreement, maintain the last assigned speed and level, or minimum flight altitude if higher, for a period of 20 minutes following the aircraft’s failure to report its position over a compulsory reporting point and thereafter adjust level and speed in accordance with the filed plan

·         Proceed with the current flight plan to the appropriate designated navigation aid serving the destination aerodrome and, when required to ensure compliance with c below, hold over this aid until commencement of descent.

·         Commence decent from the navigational aid specified in b at, or as close as possible to, the expected approach time last received and acknowledge, or, if no expected approach time has been received and acknowledged, at or as close as possible to the estimated time  of arrival resulting from the current flight plan

·         Land, if possible, within thirty minutes after the estimated time of arrival specified in c, or the last acknowledged expected approach time, whichever is later

Note:

1.      As evidence by the meteorological conditions prescribed therein, 6.1.2.1. Relates to all controlled flights, whereas 6.1.2.2. relates only to IFR flights.

2.      The provision of air traffic control service to other flights operating in the  airspace concerned will be based on the premise that an aircraft experiencing communication failure will comply with the rules in 6.1.2.2.

6.2 Air – Ground communication failure

6.2.1 When an aircraft station fails to establish contact with the aeronautical station on the designated frequency, it shall attempt to establish contact on another frequency appropriate to the route. If this attempt fails, the aircraft station shall attempt to establish communication with other aircraft or other aeronautical stations on frequencies appropriate to the route. In addition, an aircraft operating within a network shall monitor the appropriate VHF frequency for calls from nearby aircraft.

6.2.2 If the attempts specified under 6.2.1 fail, the aircraft station shall transmit its message twice on the designated frequency (ies), proceeded by the phrase “TRANSMITTING BLIND” and, if necessary, include the addresses for which the message is intended. Procedures for air navigation services (PANS) recommendations- in network operation, a message which is transmitting twice on both primary and secondary frequencies. Before changing frequency, the aircraft station should announce the frequency to which it is changing.

6.3 Receiver Failure

6.3.1 When an aircraft station is unable to establish communication due to receiver failure, it shall transmit reports at the scheduled times, or positions, on the frequency in use, preceded by the phrase “Transmitting Blind due to receiver failure”. The aircraft station shall complete repetition. During this procedure, the aircraft shall also advise the time of its next intended transmission.

6.3.2 Am aircraft which is provided with air traffic control or advisory service shall, in addition to complying with 6.3.1, transmit information regarding the intention of the pilot-in-command with respect to the continuation of the flight of the aircraft.

6.3.3 When an aircraft is unable to establish communication due to airborne equipment failure it shall, when so equipped, select the appropriate SSR code to indicate radio failure.

6.4 Transponder Procedure- Radio communication failure

6.4.1 The pilot of an aircraft losing two-way communication shall set the transponder to mode A code 7600.

8.     EXPLAIN THE RADIO FAILURE PROCEDURES IN SOUTH AFRICA.

Following procedures shall not apply to aircraft following SIDs or STARs at Johannesburg, Cape Town, or Durban, in respect of which special communication failure procedures are included.

In VMC: ICAO procedure

In IMC: ICAO procedure, supplemented as follows

a)     Proceed according to the current flight plan. If however, an ATC clearance has been received that the flight is restricted to a flight level below the flight level specified in the current flight plan, the last assigned flight must be maintained for 3 minutes on reaching, provided terrain permits. After 3 minutes the aircraft is to climb, at the normal rate of climb, to the flight level specified in the current flight plan.

b)     Proceed according to the current flight plan to the appropriate designated navigational aid (navigation facility) serving the aerodrome of intended landing and holding over this aid until commencement of descent.

c)      Commence descent from the designated navigational aid, at, or if no EAT has been received and acknowledged, at the expected time of arrival as indicated in the filed flight plan and revised in accordance with the current flight plan, lus ten minutes or as soon as possible thereafter

d)     Complete a normal instrument approach procedure in relation to the navigational facility

e)     Land, if possible, within 30 minutes after the estimated time of arrival plus 10 minutes, or the last acknowledged expected approach time, whichever is later.

9.     EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT HOLDING ENTRY PROCEDURES.

Entry

The entry into a holding pattern shall be according to heading in relation to the three entry sectors, recognizing a zone of flexibility of 5 degrees on either side of the sector boundaries. For holding on a VOR intersection, the entry track is limited to the radials forming the intersection. For holding on a VOR/DME fix, the entry track is limited to either the VOR radial, DME arc, or alternatively along the entry radial to a VOR/DME fix at the end of the outbound leg, as published.

1.3.2 SECTOR 1 PROCEDURE (PARALLEL ENTRY)

                               I.            The aircraft is approaching in the 110 degrees sector. On reaching the holding fix, the aircraft will turn onto the outbound heading and fly for one minute.

                            II.            After one minute the aircraft will turn (left for a standard holding pattern and right for a non-standard pattern) into the pattern and return to the fix.

                         III.            On its second arrival overhead the fix, the aircraft will turn onto the outbound heading and follow the pattern.

              1.3.3 SECTOR 2 PROCEDURE (OFFSET/TEARDROP)

                               I.            The aircraft is approaching in the smallest, (70 degrees) sector. On reaching the fix, the aircraft will fly a heading 30 degrees into the pattern, (i.e. 30 degrees to the right of the outbound heading for a non-standard pattern and 30 degrees to the left of the outbound heading for a standard pattern).

                            II.            The aircraft will then fly this heading for one minute and then turn inbound to the holding fix and return to the fix.

                         III.            On its second arrival over the fix, the aircraft will turn onto the outbound heading and follow the pattern.

            1.3.4 SECTOR 3 PROCEDURE (DIRECT)

                           I.            The aircraft is approaching the fix in the largest (180 degrees) sector. On reaching the fix, the aircraft will turn right onto the outbound heading and follow the pattern.

          Ref: Instrument Rating Flight Manual

10.GIVE THE HOLDING SPEEDS RESTRICTIONS

LEVELS	NORMAL CONDITIONS	TURBULENCE CONDITIONS
0-     14000 ft	230KT(2) / 170 KT(4)	280KTS (3) /170KTS (4)
14000 ft – 20000 ft	240KTS (5)	280KTS OR 0.8 mach whichever is less (3)
20000 ft – 34000 ft	265 KTS (5)
above 34000 ft	0.83 mach	0.83 mach
1.      The term “level” represents altitudes or corresponding flight levels depending upon the altimeter setting in use 2.      When the holding procedure is followed by the initial approach segment of an instrument approach procedure promulgated at a higher speed, then the holding speed may be at the higher speed. 3.      The speed of 280 kt/0.8 mach reserved for turbulent conditions should be used only after prior clearance from ATC, unless the relevant charts indicate that the holding area can accommodate aircraft flying at these higher holding speeds 4.      For holding limited to Category A and B aircraft only. 5.      Wherever possible, 280 kt should be used for holding procedures associated with airway route structures.

Ref: The Instrument Rating Manual

11.WHAT ARE THE APPROACH SPEED LIMITATIONS IN TMA’S AND CTR’S?

(1) Unless otherwise authorized by the Commissioner, no person shall, outside controlled airspace and below flight level 100, fly an aircraft at an indicated air speed of more than 250 knots.

(2) Unless otherwise authorized or required by an air traffic service unit, no person shall fly an aircraft within a control zone or an aerodrome traffic zone at an indicated air speed of more than –

(a) 160 knots, in the case of a reciprocating-engine aircraft; or

(b) 200 knots, in the case of a turbine-powered aircraft:

Provided that if the minimum safe indicated air speed for a particular flight is greater than the maximum indicated air speed prescribed in this regulation, the aircraft may be flown at the minimum safe indicated air speed.

Ref: South African (CAR 91.06.9)

12.IS THE GENERAL SPEED RESTRICTION OF 250KTS AT 40 NM INTO JNB TMA STILL IN FORCE?

·         Unless advised b ATC, all aircraft inbound to Johannesburg, Lanseria, Waterkloof Military, Port Elizabeth, Durban ND Cape Town airports, not on a STAR, will comply with the following maximum KIAS

o   Within 40 DME JSV/PEV/CTV/DNV: 250KT

o   Within 15 DME JSV/PEV/CTV/DNV: 210KT

                                Within the Cape Town Special Rules Area, flights are limited to Max IAS 180KT.

               Ref: South African AIP

13.EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT AIRCRAFT SPEED CATEGORIES.

·         The following five categories of aircraft have been established by ICAO on the basis of 1.3 times the stall speed in the landing configuration at maximum certified landing mass.

Category                                           Speed
Category A	Less than 91kts IAS
Category B	91 kts or more, but less than 121 kts IAS
Category C	121 kts or more, but less than 141 kts IAS
Category D	141 kts or more, but less than 166 kts IAS
Category E	166kts or more but less than 211 kts IAS

Ref: South African AIP (ENR 1.8.1.2.6)

14.EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE CLASSIFICATIONS.

·         For performance purposes, aeroplanes are classified as follows:

(a) Class A aeroplanes –

(i) Multi-engine aeroplanes powered by turbo-propeller engines with a maximum   certificated mass exceeding 5 700 kilograms; and

(ii) Multi-engine turbojet-powered aeroplanes;

(b) Class B aeroplanes – propeller-driven aeroplanes with a maximum certificated mass of 5 700 kilograms or less;

(c) Class C aeroplanes – aeroplanes powered by two or more reciprocating engines with a maximum certificated mass exceeding 5 700 kilograms; and

               (d) Class D aeroplanes – single-engine aeroplanes

  Ref: South African CAR (91.09.4)

15.GIVE THE PROCEDURE TURN APPROACH LIMITATIONS AND PROCEDURES.

·         It may also be referred to as a reversal procedure turn. Entry is restricted to a specific direction or sector entry. A procedure turn approach may only be executed with prior permission from the ATC and also only if the aircraft is within 30 degrees of the outbound heading.

·         It should be noted that the airspace provided for these procedures does not permit a racetrack or holding maneuver to be conducted unless so specified.

·         There are of three basic maneuvers i.e.

o    Procedure turn (45°/180°) - consisting of a specified outbound track and timing from the facility or fix, a 45° turn away from the outbound track for 1 minute from the start of turn for categories A and B aircraft (one minute 15 seconds from the start of turn for categories C, D and E aircraft), followed by a 180° turn in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound track (see Figure 6-3). The 45°/180° procedure turn is an alternative to the 80°/260° procedure turn (paragraph b.) unless specifically excluded.

                  

o   Procedure turn (80°/260°) - consisting of a specified outbound track and timing from the facility or fix, an 80° turn away from the outbound track, followed by a turn of 260° in the opposite direction to intercept the inbound track . The 80°/260° procedure turn is an alternative to the 45°/180° procedure turn unless specifically excluded.

                  

o   Base turn - consisting of a specified outbound track (A) and timing or DME distance (B) from a facility, followed by a turn to intercept the inbound track (C) The out bound track and/or the timing may be different for the various categories of aircraft.

                                                                                                                              

Ref: The Instrument Rating Manual

16.CAN A PROCEDURE TURN BE INITIATED AT FATZ? IF YES, EXPALIN THE PROCEDURE.

·         Yes a procedure turn can be initiated at FATZ. When approaching TZ NDB via 324 degrees through 144 degrees and within 30 degrees of the outbound heading inbound, use the phraseology “Executing procedure turn approach”.

Ref: South African AIP

17.WHAT IS THE STATE MINIMA FOR PRECISION APPROACH?

  

ILS CATEGORY	DECISION HEIGHT	RVR	VISIBILITY
Cat I	200 feet	550 m	800 m
Cat II	100 feet	300 m	Not applicable
Cat III a	Lower than 100 feet or No DH	200 m	Not applicable
Cat III b	Lower than 50 feet or No DH	Lower than 200 m But not lower than 75m	Not applicable
Cat III c	No DH	No RVR Limitations	Not applicable

Ref: South African CATS (91.07.5)

18.WHAT IS THE STATE MINIMAS FOR NON-PRECEISION APPROACH?

NON-PRECISION APPROACH MINIMA
Facility	Lowest MDH
LLZ- LOCALIZER ONLY APPROACH	250 ft
VOR/DME	250 ft
VOR	300 ft
NDB	300 ft

Ref: South African CATS (91.07.5)

19.WHAT IS THE STATE MINIMA FOR CIRCLING APPROACH?

·         The circle to land procedure is a visual maneuver conducted after completing an instrument approach, in order to bring the aircraft into a position for landing on a runway that is not suitably located for a straight in approach or when the wind strongly favors a landing on a non-instrument approach end of a runway.

·         The visual maneuvering area for a circling approach is determined by drawing arcs centered on each runway threshold and joining those arcs with tangent lines (see Figure above). The radius of the arcs is related to:

a. aircraft category;

b. speed: speed for each category;

c. wind speed: 46 km/h (25 kt) throughout the turn; and

d. bank angle: 20° average or 3° per second, whichever requires less bank.

·         The below table lists the relationship between aircraft approach category and the radii for visual manoeurving

CATEGORY OF AIRCRAFT/ IAS KTS	A/100	B/135	C/180	D/205	E/240
TAS at 2000ft MSL + 25kt wind factor	131	168	215	242	279
RADIUS (R) OF TURN (NM)	0.69	1.13	1.85	2.34	3.12
STRIAGHT SEGMENT (NM) CONSTANT VALUE	0.30	0.40	0.50	0.60	0.70
RADIUS (*R) FROM THRESHOLD (NM)	1.68	2.66	4.20	5.28	6.94
NOTE: 2R + STRIAGHT SEGMENT

·         When a circling area has been established, the obstacle clearance altitude/height is determined for each category of aircraft.

AIRCRAFT CATEGORY	OBSTACLE CLEARANCE IN FEET	LOWEST OCH ABOVE AERODROME ELEVATION IN FT	MINIMUM VISIBILTY IN KM (NM)
A	295	394	1.9 (1.0)
B	295	492	2.8 (1.5)
C	394	591	3.7 (2.0)
D	394	689	4.6 (2.5)
E	492	787	6.5 (3.5)

·         When conducting circle to land procedure, the pilot must not descend below the approach MDA/H unless

o   Visual reference has been established and can be maintained

o   The pilot has the landing threshold in sight and

o   The required obstacle clearance can be maintained and the aircraft in a position to carry out a landing.

                       Ref: South African AIP (ENR 1.8)

20.WHAT IS THE MINIMUM AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENT FOR IMC OPERATIONS?

       (1) The minimum aircraft equipment requirement for IMC operations are–

(a) A magnetic compass;

(b) An accurate time-piece showing the time in hours, minutes and seconds;

(c) A sensitive pressure altimeter with subscale settings, calibrated in hectopascal, adjustable for any barometric pressure setting likely to be encountered during flight;

(d) An airspeed indicator system with heated Pitot tube or equivalent means for preventing malfunctioning due to either condensation or icing;

(e) A vertical-speed indicator;

(f) A turn-and-bank indicator, or a turn co-ordinator, incorporating a slip indicator;

(g) An attitude indicator;

(h) A stabilized direction indicator;

(i) A means of indicating on the flight deck the outside air temperature in degrees         Celsius;

(j) An alternate source of static pressure for the altimeter and the airspeed and vertical-speed indicators; and

(k) A chart holder in an easily readable position which can be illuminated, if to be operated by night.

        (2) If flight in RVSM airspace is contemplated, the aircraft has to be equipped with-

               (a) two independent altitude measuring systems

               (b) equipment for measuring static pressure sensed by the static source converting                             it to pressure altitude and displaying the pressure altitude to the flight crew;

               (c) equipment for providing digitally encoded signal corresponding to the displayed pressure altitude, for automatic altitude reporting purposes;

               (d) static source error correction; and

               (e) signals references to a pilot-selected altitude for automatic control and alerting; as contemplated in section 5 of Technical Standard 91.07.31 of Document SA-CATS-OPS91

             Ref: Aviation Legislation in South Africa 91.04.5

21. AIRFIELD FACILITIES REQUIREMENT FOR IMC OPERATIONS?

a.       Elements of the approach light systems

b.       The threshold;

c.        Threshold markings

d.       The threshold lights

e.       The threshold identification lights

f.         The visual glide slope indicator

g.       The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings

h.       the touchdown zone lights

i.         runway edge lights

j.         other visual references accepted by the commissioner

             Ref: South African CATS (91.07.5)

22.WHAT IS AN OUTER MARKER AND GIVE THE REASONS FOR THE USE OF AN OUTER MARKER?

·         The outer marker is used to indicate that an aircraft should intercept the glide path when over the transmitter. The outer marker station, located approximately 4.6 miles from the end of the runway, amplitude modulates the 75 MHz carrier at 400 Hz. The OM station is indentified by a 400 Hz audio tone consisting of dashes (approximately 2 dashes per second), and by the annunciation of the “blue” indicator light on the cockpit instrument panel.

                Ref: The Instrument Rating Manual by David J. Howarth

23.GIVE THE ICAO ALITIMETER SETTING PROCEDURES FOR IFR FLIGHTS.

a.       Pressure correction:

                                                              i.      3.2.1 Flight levels: When flying at levels with the altimeter set to 1013.2hpa, the minimum safe altitude must be corrected for deviations in pressure when the pressure is lower than the standard atmosphere (1013.2hpa). An appropriate correction is 10m (30ft) per hpa below 1013hpa. Alternatively, the correction can be obtained from standard correction graphs or tables supplied by the operator.

                                                           ii.      3.2.2 QNH/QNE. When using the QNH or QFE altimeter setting (giving altitude or height above QFE datum respectively), a pressure correction is not required.

b.       TEMPERATURE CORRECTION:

                                                              i.      3.3.1 Requirement for temperature correction. The calculated minimum safe altitude/heights must be adjusted when the ambient temperature on the surface is much lower than that predicted by the standard atmosphere. In such conditions, an approximate corrections is 4 percent height increase for every 10 degrees c below standard temperature as measured at the altimeter setting source. This is safe for all altimeter setting altitudes for temperatures above -15 degrees.

24.EXPLAIN  THE “DA” AND “MDA”

a.       DA – DECISION ALTITUDE – decision altitude is a specified altitude, in a precision approach at which a missed approach is initiated if the visual reference to continue the approach has not been established.

Note: Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level (MSL) and Decision Height (DH) is referenced to the runway threshold.

b.       MDH – MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE – Minimum Descent Altitude is a specified altitude in a non-precision approach at which an aircraft cannot descend below until visual references to continue the approach and land is established.

Note: Minimum Descent Altitude is referenced to Mean Sea Level (MSL) and Minimum Descend Height (MDH) is referenced to runway threshold.

                              Ref: South African AIP (ENR 1.8.1.2.18)

25.GIVE THE VISUAL REQUIREMENTS TO LAND OFF A NON-PRECISION APPROACH.

                               The visual requirements to land off a non-precision approach are:

                                                              i.      Elements of the approach lighting systems

                                                           ii.      The threshold

                                                         iii.      The threshold markings

                                                         iv.      The threshold lights

                                                            v.      The threshold identification lighting

                                                         vi.      The visual glide slope indicator

                                                       vii.      The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings

                                                    viii.      The touchdown zone lights

                                                          ix.      Runway edge lights

                                                            x.      Other visual references accepted by the commissioner.

                            Ref: South African CATS (91.07.5)

26.GIVE VISUAL REQUIREMENTS TO LAND OFF A CAT I ILS

The visual requirements for an aircraft to land off a Cat I ILS are:

                                                              i.      Elements of the approach lighting system

                                                           ii.      The threshold

                                                         iii.      The threshold markings

                                                         iv.      The threshold lights

                                                            v.      The threshold identification lights

                                                         vi.      The visual glide slope indicator

                                                       vii.      The touchdown zone or touchdown markings

                                                    viii.      the touchdown zone lightings

                                                          ix.      runway edge lights.

                              Ref: South African CATS (91.07.5)

27.STATE THE ICAO PROCEDURE FOR A MISSED APPROACH DURING CIRCLING APPROACH.

·         If visual reference is lost while circling to land from an instrument approach, the missed approach specified for that particular procedure must be followed. It is expected that the pilot will make an initial climbing turn towards the landing runway and overhead the aerodrome where the pilot will establish the aircraft climbing on the missed approach track. In as much as the circling manoeuvre may be accomplished in more than one direction, different patterns will be required to establish the aircraft on the prescribed missed approach course depending on its position at the time visual reference is lost.

AIRCRAFT CATEGORY	MAX SPEED FOR VISUAL MANOEUVERING (CIRCLING) KTS
A	100
B	135
C	180
D	205
E	240

28.STATE THE SOUTH AFRICAN PROCEDURES FOR A MISSED APPROACH DURING A CIRCLING APPROACH?

·         If the visual reference is lost while circling to land from an instrument approach, the missed approach specified for that procedure must be followed. The action is for the pilot to initiate an immediate climb towards the initial approach Fix on which the instrument approach is based on, unless otherwise instructed by the Air traffic control.

29.WHAT DOES THE TERM “LVP” MEAN, WHEN WILL IT BE IN FORCE AND WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS?

·          LVP – Stands for “Low Visibility Procedure”.

·          They are established when the RVR less than 600m and the ceiling is less than 200 ft.

·          In South Africa LVP are only established at Johannesburg international and Cape Town international.  

·         Pilots can expect ILS localizer and glide path signals to be fully protected from interference during the final approach, vehicle traffic is reduced, perimeter gates are closed, all required lighting facilities are verified serviceable and localizer sensitive area (LSA) is protected from the time pilots are notified that LVP’s are in operation until the time that pilots are notified that LVP’s have been cancelled.

·         ATC will inform pilots when LVP’s is in force. This may be obtained via the ATIS.

                 Ref: South African AIP (ENR 1.8.4)

30.WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS FOR A VISUAL APPROACH

·                        The flight shall not be cleared to descend below the initial approach altitude as specified for a specific approach unless:

o   The pilot has reported passing an appropriate point defined by a radio aid and;

o   The pilot reports that the aerodrome is visual and can be maintained in visual contact, or

o   Within 25nm of the destination aerodrome

o   The pilot is conducting an approach under radar control

·         Visual reference to terrain must be possible through-out and;

·         The cloud ceiling is at or above the approved initial approach level or

·         The pilot reports that at the initial approach level or at any time during the instrument approach that the meteorological conditions are such that with reasonable assurance a visual approach and a landing can be made

·         Separation will be provided between an aircraft cleared to execute a visual approach and landing and other arriving and departing aircraft.

Ref: The Instrument Rating Manual by David J Howarth

31.WHAT ARE THE SA RULES WITH REGARDS TO THE APPROACH BAN

·         PRECISION APPROACH

o   An approach ban is implemented by ATC when the weather falls below landing minima for the ILS approach

o   You may not proceed further than the Outer marker if ATC advises of an “approach ban” and have not reached the outer marker

o   If past the outer marker and an approach ban is advised by ATC, you may proceed to the approach DA and must initiate a Go around if you are not visual and in a position to land.

·         NON- PRECISION APPROACH

o   An approach ban may be instituted by the ATC

o   As with the precision approach, the pilot may continue to MDA then the MAPt if ATC institutes an approach ban after passing the equivalent point.

o   If however the equivalent point does exist, on a non-precision approach, use a figure of 1000 ft above the landing threshold..therefore, above this point if an approach ban is enforced, you must continue lower than 1000ft above the landing threshold and must commence the missed approach.

o   If past the 1000ft point, you may continue to MDA and the MAPt, but must commence a missed approach if you are not visual at the MAPt.

32.WHAT IS THE VDP AND HOW CAN YOU DETERMINE ITS POSITION (TIME AND DISTANCE)

·         VDP – VISUAL DESCENT POINT – is a defined point on the final approach track of a non-precision straight-in approach procedure from which a normal descent from MDA to the runway touchdown zone may be commenced, provided the approach threshold of that runway or approach lights or other markings are clearly visible to the pilot.

·         If the VDP distance is not on the approach plate it can be calculated by height/ distance; 300 ft per nm is the rule of thumb.

Ref: South African AIP (ENR 1.8.1.2.31)

33.EXPLAIN THE TERM “VMC APPROACH” AND “VISUAL APPROACH”

·         VMC APPROACH

·         Requested by the pilot; and

·         If so prescribed by the ATSU

·         An arriving aircraft may be cleared to descend below the initial approach altitude subject to maintain by day

§  Own separation

§  VMC

§  Visual contact with the aerodrome; and

§  By night – provided that there is no reduction of standard separation involved.

                 VISUAL APPROACH

§  Means an approach by an IFR flight when either part or all of an instrument approach is no completed and the approach is executed with visual reference to the terrain

Ref: S.A.C.A.A AIP ENR 1.8

34.EXPLAIN THE FUEL PLANNING REQUIREMENT FOR A FLIGHT CONDUCTED ON AN IF FLIGHT PLAN.

ITEM	FUEL REQUIRED	REMARK
1.     TAXI AND TAKE OFF	SUFFICIENT
2.     CLIMB	SUFFICIENT
3.     CRUISE TO TOD	SUFFICIENT
4.     DESCENT, APPROACH AND LANDING	SUFFICIENT
5.     MISSED APPROACH, CLIMB TO CRUISING LEVEL; CRUISE TO TOD, APPROACH AND LANDING	SUFFICIENT
6.     CONTIGENCY	THE HIGHER OF; 5% of planned trip fuel Or 5 minutes at holding speed at 1500ft above destination alternate aerodrome in standard conditions	There are other options for this, but these require fuel monitoring program
7.     FINAL RESERVE	Reciprocating Engines; Fuel to fly for 45 minutes Turbine power Engines; 30 mins at holding speed At 1500ft above destination alternate in standard conditions	Alternate need only be selected if weather forecast is not VMC at destination
8.     ADDITIONAL FUEL	Holding for 15 mins at destination aerodrome under IFR with NO alternate OR Enough for failure of critical or loss of pressurization, hold for 15 mins and then approach and landing	Only required if fuel on board is not sufficient to cover these events( e.g. required if over water or hostile country)
9.     EXTRA FUEL	At pilots discretion

            Ref: The Instrument Flight Manual by David J. Howarth

35.STATE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN “RADAR IDENTIFIED”, “RADAR CONTROL” AND “RADAR VECTOR”.

a.       RADAR IDENTIFIED – Simply means that the aircraft has been positively identified on radar. The relevant controller is merely using the system to monitor the aircraft’s progress and at the same time apply radar separation standards. The pilot remains responsible for maintaining terrain clearance

b.       RADAR CONTROL – This term is used by ATC when it needs to alter the heading or altitude/level of an aircraft operation in accordance with IFR in controlled airspace. Reason for placing an aircraft under radar control will be made known to the pilot for example when radar vectors onto an ILS are given. In this case, the ATC becomes responsible for the maintenance of terrain clearance. Radar control can only be given to an aircraft in controlled airspace and it follows, therefore, that once the aircraft leaves controlled airspace he will be notified by ATC that “radar service terminates”.

c.        RADAR VECTOR – when given a radar vector, it is the controller responsible for terrain clearance. Can also be defined as provision of navigational guidance to aircraft in the form of specific headings based on the use of radar.

36.EXPLAIN THE RECENCY CONCERNING A PILOT-IN-COMMAND OF AN AIRCRAFT ON AN INSTRUMENT APPROACH TO AN AERODROME IN IMC.

·         A pilot shall not act as pilot-in-command of an aircraft on an instrument approach to an aerodrome in IMC unless the pilot has, within the 90 days immediately preceding such approach, by means of an instrument approach procedure or procedures established by the commissioner or an appropriate authority –

·         Executed at least two approaches in an aircraft either under actual or simulated conditions with reference to flight instrument only; or

·         Executed at least one approach in an aircraft under actual or simulated conditions with reference to flight instruments only and one approach in an approved simulator; or undergone the appropriate skill test as prescribed in CAR part 61.

Ref: South African CAR (91.02.4) 

37.     WHAT IS AN EAT?

·         EAT Stands for Expected approach time and it is the time at which ATC expects that an arriving aircraft, following a delay will leave the holding pattern to complete its approach for landing

NOTE:

The actual time of leaving the holding pattern will depend upon the approach clearance.

Ref: S.A.C.A.A AIP ENR 1.8.1.2.11(a) 

38.WHAT IS OCT?

·         OCT stands for Onward clearance time and it is the time given by ATC that requires an aircraft to leave the hold over an en-route holding fix and continue en-route. OCT is generally given when the holding period is expected to be greater than 10 minutes.

Ref: S.A.C.A.A AIP ENR 1.8.1.2.11(b)

39.MAY A RADIO ALTIMETER BE USED TO DETERMINE THE DA FOR A CAT I ILS?

    Yes, a decision height knob positions the DH bug for use during an ILS approach. And since it is a precision approach the radio altimeter will help in flying the approach as precise as possible

40.MAY A RADIO ALTIMETER BE USED TO DETERMINE THE MDA FOR A NON-PRECISION APPROACH?

        No because a radio altimeter reads altitude with reference to the ground only and to get MDA a pilot has to add the Obstacle Clearance Height to the elevation above mean sea level.

41.WHAT IS AN ETOPS AND HOW IS IT APPLIED TO A PERFORMANCE CLASS B AIRCRAFT?

·         ETOPS – Stands for Extended Twin-Engine Operations. The designation given to over- ocean flights far from possible emergency landing strips, which represents heightened risk in a twin engine aircraft. Before certification, engines have to demonstrate a very high mean time between failures. An aircraft or engine type is not normally ETOPS certified until it has been proven in normal service for at least one year.

42.EXPLAIN THE DIFFERENT MISSED-APPROACH SEGMENTS FOR A PERFORMANCE CLASS B AIRCRAFT.

·         The missed-approach segment consists of 3 segments:

·         The initial stage: It is the phase of the missed approach that begins at the MAPt and ends at the point where the climb is established. Due to high workload on the pilot there are generally no turns specified in this phase

·         The intermediate stage: It is the phase in which the climb is continued, normally straight ahead. It extends to the first point where 164ft obstacle clearance is obtained and can be maintained. The intermediate missed approach track may be changed by maximum of 15 degrees from that of the initial missed approach phase. During this phase, it is assumed that the aircraft will begin track corrections.

·         The final phase: begins at the point where 164ft obstacle clearance is first obtained and can be maintained. It extends to the point where a new approach, holding or return to en-route flight is initiated. In order to maintain the aircrafts position within the protected area, there are specific maximum speeds that are permitted during the missed approach procedure

CATEGORY	MAX SPEEDS FOR MISSED APPROACH
	INTERMEDIATE	FINAL
B	130	150

43.EXPLAIN THE 5 APPROACH SEGMENTS.

a.       ARRIVAL SEGEMENT – This could take the form of a STAR or be provided by radar vectors in Terminal areas. The arrival route terminates at the initial approach fix, except that in the case of some radar vectors an aeroplane could be vectored to either the intermediate or final approach tracks.

b.       INITIAL APPROACH SEGMENT – It may take the form of a racetrack procedure. It commences at the initial approach fix and ends at the intermediate fix. A minimum altitude called the initial approach altitude, is always specified and is defined as “the lowest altitude in the holding pattern or on an arrival route of an instrument approach procedure, providing the required protection against obstacles.  This altitude may be below Minimum Sector Altitude (MSA) and accepted by the pilot, when being vectored under radar control. Where a racetrack procedure is used, a fixed outbound leg distance is normally specified to keep the aircraft within an area where obstacle clearance is provided. Minimum obstacle clearance of 1000ft is provided in the primary area.

                                                              i.      Reversal procedure: The procedure may be in the form of a procedure base turn. Entry is restricted to a specific direction or sector entry. A particular turn normally a base turn or procedure turn is prescribed, and to remain within the airspace provided requires strict adherence to the directions and timing.

                                                           ii.      Procedure turn approach: It is a reversal procedure that once completed aligns the aircraft with the final approach path. It may be the primary method of aligning the aircraft with the final approach path or may be used instead of a racetrack pattern. When using a procedure turn approach the aircraft should be approaching the IAF within 30 degrees of the outbound heading. If a procedure turn approach is allowed and the aircraft is within 30 degrees either side of the outbound heading, the approach plate will stipulate that the pilot must use the phraseology “request procedure turn approach”.

1.     Speed restrictions may be imposed on some reversal procedures although a maximum speed for a reversal or racetrack procedure is provided CAT A = 110kts IAS, CAT B = 140kts IAS.

2.     Bank angle are either rate 1 or 25 degrees whichever is less

3.     The inbound track must be intercepted following a parallel entry when proceeding to the final segment of the approach

4.     The aircraft shall cross the fix or facility and fly outbound on the specified track descending as necessary to the specified altitude

5.     If further descent is specified after the inbound turn, this descent shall not be started until established on the inbound track.

6.     Outbound timing for a racetrack procedure when based on a facility starts when a beam the facility or an attaining the outbound heading, whichever comes later

7.     When based on a fix the outbound timing starts from attaining the outbound heading.

              

c.          THE INTERMEDIATE SEGMENT – This is the segment during which the aircraft speed and configuration should be adjusted to prepare the aircraft for final approach. The descent gradient is kept as shallow as possible. During the intermediate approach, the obstacle clearance requirement reduces from 984ft to 492ft in the primary area. Where a FAF is available, the intermediate approach segment begins when the aircraft is on the inbound track of the procedure turn, base turn or final inbound leg of the racetrack

pattern. N/B Where no final approach fix is specified, the inbound track is the final approach segment.

d.       THE FINAL APPROACH SEGMENT

                                                               i.      NON-PRECISION WITH A FAF – This segment begins at a facility or fix, called the final approach fix (FAF) and ends at the missed approach point (MAPt). The FAF is sited on the final approach track at a distance that permits selection of final approach configuration, and descent from intermediate approach altitude/height to the MDA applicable either for a straight- in approach or a visual circling. The optimum distance for locating the FAF relative to the threshold is 5 nm. The maximum length should not normally be greater than 10nm. The FAF is crossed at, or above a specified altitude/height and descent is then initiated. The descent gradient is published, and where range information is available, descent profile information is provided. The Maltese cross symbol is used to identify the final approach fix on an approach chart.

                                                             ii.      NON-PRECISION APPROACH WITH NO FAF – This is where an aerodrome procedure may be designed where the facility is both the IAF and the MAPt. These procedures will indicate a minimum/height for a reversal procedure or racetrack, and an OCH/H for final approach. In the absence of a FAF, descent to MDA/H is made once the aircraft is established inbound on the final approach track. Normally the final approach track cannot normally be aligned on the runway centerline as the facility is situated on or near the aerodrome and not on the runway centre line.

                                                           iii.      PRECISION APPROACH- Begins at the final approach point (FAP). This is a point in space on the centerline of the localizer azimuth specified for the final approach track where the intermediate approach altitude/height intersects the nominal glide path elevation angle. Generally glide path elevation angle interception occurs at heights from 984ft to 2955ft above the runway elevation. In that case 3 degrees glide path elevation angle interception occurs between 3 nm and 10nm from the threshold. The intermediate approach track is designed to place the aircraft on the localizer azimuth specified for the final approach track at an altitude/height that is below the nominal glide path elevation angle as to ensure interception of the correct glide slope. The final approach area contains a fix or facility that permits verification of the glide path elevation angle/altimeter relationship. The outer marker or DME fix is normally used for this purpose. The final approach point for a precision approach is depicted by the glide slope/path intercept point.

e.       THE MISSED APPROACH SEGMENT – This phase of the instrument approach procedure has been kept as simple as possible as the pilot is faced with the demanding task of changing the aircraft configuration, altitude and attitude. A missed approach procedure is designed to provide protection from obstacles throughout the missed approach manoeuvre. Specifies a point at which the missed approach begins (The missed approach point- MAPt) and a point or altitude/height where it ends. The missed approach is assumed to be initiated not lower than the DA/H in precision approach procedures, or at a specified point in non-precision approach procedures not lower than the MDA/H. The MAPt is a procedure may be

                                                               i.      The point of intersection of an electronic glide path with the applicable DA/H

                                                             ii.      A navigational facility; or

                                                           iii.      A fix; or

                                                           iv.      A specified distance from the FAF.

                 Ref: The Instrument Rating Manual by David J Howarth

44.WHAT ARE THE MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURES, LIMITATIONS AND PROTECTION?

a.       THE INITIAL STAGE: Of the missed approach begins at the MAPt and ends at the point where the climb is established. Due to high workload on the pilot there are generally no turns specified in this phase.

b.       THE INTERMEDIATE STAGE: it is the phase in which the climb is continued, normally straight ahead. It extends to the first point where 164ft obstacle clearance is obtained and can be maintained. It may be changed by a maximum of 15 degrees from that of the initial missed approach phase. During this phase, it is assumed that the aircraft will begin track corrections.

c.        THE FINAL PHASE: Begins at the point where 164ft obstacle clearance is first obtained and can be maintained. It extends to the point where a new approach, holding or return to en-route flight is initiated. Turns maybe prescribed in this phase.

CATEGORY	MAX SPEEDS FOR MISSED APPROACH
	INTERMEDIATE	FINAL
A	100	110
B	130	150
C	160	240
D	185	265
E	230	275

Ref: The Instrument Rating Manual by David J Howarth

45.HOW SHOULD DEVIATIONS FROM A FLIGHT PLAN BE DEALT WITH (IN FLIGHT)?

·         In the event that a controlled flight inadvertently deviates from its current flight plan, the following action shall be taken

o   Deviation from track: If the aircraft is off track, action shall be taken forthwith to adjust the heading of the aircraft to regain track as soon as practicable

o   Variation in True Airspeed: If the average true airspeed at cruising level between reporting points varies or is expected to vary by plus or minus 5 percent of the true airspeed, from that given in the flight plan, the appropriate air traffic services unit shall so be informed

o   Changes in Time estimate: If the time estimate for the next applicable reporting point, flight information region boundary or destination aerodrome, whichever comes first, is found to be in error in excess of 3 minutes from that notified to air traffic services, or such other period of time as is prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority or on the basis of air navigation regional agreements, a revised estimated time shall be notified as soon as possible to the appropriate air traffic services unit.

·         Subject to the provisions of CAR 91.3.6.2.2 all changes to a flight plan submitted for an IFR flight, or a VFR flight operated as a controlled flight, shall be reported as soon as practicable to the appropriate air traffic service unit. For other VFR flights, significant changes to a flight plan shall be reported as soon as practicable to the appropriate air traffic unit.

·         Information submitted prior to departure regarding fuel endurance or total number of persons carried on board, if incorrect at time of departure, constitutes a significant change to the flight plan and as such must be reported.

Ref: South African CAR (91.03.4)

46.WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN A “CLOUD BREAK” AND NDB APPROACH?

a.       CLOUD BREAK – A cloud break procedure is one at which when one or more of the following conditions apply:

                                                              i.      Such procedure is conducted outside controlled airspace

                                                           ii.      Such procedure is conducted inside controlled airspace

                                                         iii.      The runway and/or equipment does not comply with ICAO requirements for instrument approach procedures

                                                         iv.      The runway is not aligned with the final approach track

                                                            v.      Local QNH may not be available

                                                         vi.      Any Cloud break procedure conducted outside Controlled Airspace is conducted at the discretion of the Pilot-in-command.

Ø  In the event for such runway and /or equipment does not comply with ICAO requirements, the OCH/H will not be lower than that specified for circling minima as applicable to aircraft category as follows

·         Category A – Minimum obstacle clearance

·         Category B – above any obstacle in the visual manoeuvring area = 295ft

·         Category C – minimum obstacle clearance

·         Category D – above any obstacle in the visual manoeuvring area = 394ft

Ø  Provided that the minimum obstacle clearance height (OCH) is not less than

o   CAT A – 400ft

o   CAT B – 500ft

o   CAT C – 600ft

o   CAT D – 700ft; WHILE

b.       NDB APPROACH

                                                               i.      The lowest MDH that can be used is 300ft

                                                             ii.      A descent to MDA may be authorized on a time basis if when conducting an NDB approach that utilizes a secondary facility if the secondary NDB is unserviceable (unless another MDA is specified for this circumstances – Note if a 2 NDB approach is flown both must be serviceable in order to fly to the lower MDA).

                                                           iii.      The aircraft must have a serviceable ADF in order to fly the approach

                                                           iv.      By Intercepting specific bearings to and from the NDB using the ADF the pilot aligns the aircraft on the final approach course

Ref: S.A.CA.A. AIP ENR 1.8

47.WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS FOR SINGLE PILOT IF AND NIGHT OPERATIONS UNDER PART 135?

1.                The operator of a small commercial air transport aeroplane shall ensure:

o   A holder of a commercial pilot license does not operate as a pilot-in-command of an aeroplane certified in the aeroplane flight manual referred to in regulation 135.04.4 for single-pilot operations unless

§  For operations under IFR or by night in a small commercial air transport turbo-propeller or turbojet aeroplane, an operator shall ensure that the minimum flight crew is two pilots: provided that in the case of a turbojet aeroplane, a single-pilot operation is allowed if

·         The aeroplane has been certified for single-pilot IFR operations; and

·         The operator has included in the operations manual, referred to in sub regulation 135.04.2, a conversion and recurrent training program for pilots which include the additional requirements for a single-pilot operation.

·         When conducting passenger carrying operations under VFR outside a radius of 50 nautical miles from an aerodrome of departure the pilot has a minimum of 300 hours total flight time on aeroplanes or holds a valid instrument rating; or

·         When operating on a multi-engine type under IFR, the pilot has a minimum or 400 hours total flight time on aeroplanes which includes 200 hours as pilot-in-command of which 100 hours have been under IFR including 40 hours multi-engine operation: provided that the 200 hours pilot-in-command may be substituted by hours operating as co-pilot on the basis of 2 hours co-pilot is equivalent to one hour as pilot-in-command: provided further that these hours are gained within an established multi-pilot flight crew system prescribed in the operations manual to in regulation CAR 135.04.2.

Ref: South African CAR (135.03.6)

48.WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS FOR A SINGLE ENGINE AIRCRAFT IF AND NIGHT OPS UNDER PART 135?

·         The operator of a small commercial air transport aeroplane shall not operate the aeroplane in accordance with IFR, unless such aeroplane is equipped with:

(a) A magnetic compass;

(b) An accurate time-piece showing the time in hours, minutes and seconds;

(c) To sensitive pressure altimeters with subscale settings, calibrated in hectopascal, adjustable for any barometric pressure setting likely to be encountered during flight;

(d) An airspeed indicator system with heated pitot tube or equivalent means for preventing malfunctioning due to either condensation or icing, including a warning indicator of pitot heater failure;

(e) A vertical-speed indicator;

(f) A turn-and-slip indicator, or a turn co-coordinator, incorporating a slip indicator;

(g) An attitude indicator;

(h) A stabilized direction indicator;

(i) A means of indicating on the flight deck the outside air temperature in degrees Celsius;

(j) An alternate source of static pressure for the altimeter and the airspeed and vertical-speed indicators a

                                   (k) A chart holder in an easily readable position which can be                   illuminated, if to be operated by night.

            Ref: Aviation Legislation in South Africa 135.05.3

49.WHAT ARE THE MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR A PILOT TO OPERATE UNDER PART 135 (SINGLE AND MULTI ENGINE AIRCRAFT)

                                 The operator of a small commercial air transport aeroplane shall ensure that the holder of a commercial pilot licence does not operate

·         When conducting passenger carrying operations under VFR outside a radius of 50 nautical miles from an aerodrome of departure the pilot has a minimum of 300 hours total flight time on aeroplanes or holds a valid instrument rating; or

·         When operating on a multi-engine type under IFR, the pilot has a minimum or 400 hours total flight time on aeroplanes which includes 200 hours as pilot-in-command of which 100 hours have been under IFR including 40 hours multi-engine operation: provided that the 200 hours pilot-in-command may be substituted by hours operating as co-pilot on the basis of 2 hours co-pilot is equivalent to one hour as pilot-in-command: provided further that these hours are gained within an established multi-pilot flight crew system prescribed in the operations manual to in regulation CAR 135.04.2.

Ref: South African CAR (135.04)